2002 WORLD BOOK ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hinduism, the major religion of India, is one of the oldest
living religions in the world. The roots of Hinduism date to prehistoric times
in India. About 750 million people practice the religion. Although most Hindus
live in India, Hindu literature and philosophy have influenced people throughout
the world.
Through the centuries, Hinduism has been the most important influence on the
culture of India. For example, the caste system of India is a basic part of
Hinduism. The caste system determines the way of life of most Hindus, including
what occupations they enter.
Beliefs of Hinduism. Hinduism developed gradually over thousands of
years, and many cultures and religions helped shape it. Many sects (groups)
arose within Hinduism, and each developed its own philosophy and form of
worship. Like most religions, Hinduism has basic beliefs about divinities, life
after death, and personal conduct.
Sacred writings. Hinduism has no single book that is the source of its
doctrines. But it has many sacred writings, all of which have contributed to its
fundamental beliefs. The most important include the Vedas, the Puranas, the
Ramayana, the Mahabharata with its section called the Bhagavad-Gita, and the
Manu Smriti.
The Vedas are the oldest Hindu scriptures and are older than the sacred writings
of any other major religion. The teachings of the Vedas existed for centuries
before they were finally written down. There are four Vedas--the Rigveda, the
Samaveda, the Yajurveda, and the Atharvaveda. Each has four parts--the Samhitas,
the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and the Upanishads. The Samhitas contain prayers
and hymns and are the oldest part. The Brahmanas deal with ritual and theology
and include explanations of the Samhitas. The Aranyakas and the Upanishads are
works of mysticism and philosophy written as dialogues.
The Puranas are long verse stories that contain many important Hindu myths about
Hindu gods and goddesses and the lives of great Hindu heroes. They also describe
the Hindu beliefs about how the world began and how it periodically ends and is
reborn.
The Ramayana and the Mahabharata are long epics. The Ramayana tells of Prince
Rama and his attempts to rescue Sita, who has been kidnapped by the demon king
Ravana. The Mahabharata describes a conflict between the Pandavas and the
Kauravas, two families who are cousins. Generally, the Pandavas are considered
to be morally and ethically superior to the Kauravas.
The Bhagavad-Gita, a philosophical work, forms part of the Mahabharata. In it,
the god Krishna and the Pandava warrior Arjuna discuss the meaning and nature of
existence.
The Manu Smriti (Code of Manu) is a basic source of Hindu religious and social
law. Part of the Manu Smriti sets forth the basis of the caste system.
Divinities. Early Hindus worshiped gods that represented powers in
nature, such as rain and the sun. Gradually, some Hindus came to believe that,
though divinities appear in separate forms, these forms are part of one
universal spirit called Brahman. These Hindus believe that many divinities make
up Brahman. The most important ones are Brahma, the creator of the universe;
Vishnu, its preserver; and Shiva, its destroyer.
One of the most important Hindu divinities is Shiva's wife, who has several
names. She is best known as Durga, Kali, Parvati, or Uma. As Parvati or Uma, she
is the beloved goddess of motherhood. As Durga or Kali, she is the feared
goddess of destruction. For many Hindus, these contrasting natures of the
goddess represent the way in which time and matter constantly move from birth to
death and from creation to destruction. Many Hindus find great religious truth
in this symbolism and worship the goddess as their most important divinity.
According to Hindu doctrine, animals as well as human beings have souls. Hindus
worship some gods in the form of animals. Cows are sacred, but Hindus also
revere monkeys, snakes, and other animals.
The six schools of philosophy. Many schools of Hindu thought have
developed through the centuries. Six of these schools have become especially
prominent. In their traditional order, they are (1) nyaya, (2) vaisheska, (3)
sankhya, (4) yoga, (5) purva-mimamsa, and (6) vedanta.
Nyaya deals with logic. Vaisheska concerns the nature of the world. Sankhya
examines the origin and evolution of the universe. Yoga is a set of mental and
physical exercises designed to free the soul from reliance on the body so that
the soul can unite with Brahman. Purva-mimamsa categorizes Vedic texts and
rituals. Vedanta interprets especially the Upanishads, the Bhagavad-Gita, and
the Brahma Sutra.
Caste is India's strict system of social classes. The caste system may
have existed in some form before Aryan invaders from central Asia attacked India
about 1500 B.C. The Aryans or their descendants gradually gained control of most
of India. They used the caste system at first to limit contact between
themselves and the native Indian people. Later, the caste system became more
elaborate and one of the teachings of Hinduism. The Hindu castes are grouped
into four main categories, called varnas. In order of rank, these hereditary
groups are (1) Brahmans, the priests and scholars; (2) Kshatriyas, the rulers
and warriors; (3) Vaisyas, the merchants and professionals; and (4) Sudras, the
laborers and servants. The caste system includes thousands of castes, each of
which has its own rules of behavior.
For centuries, one large group, the untouchables, has existed outside the four
varnas and has ranked below the lowest Sudra caste. The untouchables
traditionally have had such occupations as tanning, which Hindu law forbids for
a member of any caste in the four varnas. The Indian constitution of 1950
outlawed untouchability and gave the group full citizenship. But discrimination
against untouchables has not been eliminated.
Through the years, the caste system has weakened somewhat, but continues to be a
strong influence in Indian life. Some social distinctions have been abandoned,
especially in the cities. Many educated Hindus of different castes intermix and
work with one another. Formerly, they would have dined with and would have
married only members of their own caste.
Reincarnation and karma. Hinduism teaches that the soul never dies. When
the body dies, the soul is reborn. This continuous process of rebirth is called
reincarnation. The soul may be reborn in an animal or in a human being, but
Hindu doctrine is not clear on this point.
The law of karma states that every action influences how the soul will be born
in the next reincarnation. If a person lives a good life, the soul will be born
into a higher state, perhaps into the body of a brahman. If a person leads an
evil life, the soul will be born into a lower state, perhaps into the body of a
worm. A person's reincarnation continues until he or she achieves spiritual
perfection. The soul then enters a new level of existence, called moksha, from
which it never returns.
Hindu worship
Worship in temples. Hinduism considers temples as
buildings dedicated to divinities. Its followers worship as individuals, not as
congregations. Most Hindu temples have many shrines, each of which is devoted to
a divinity. Each temple also has one principal shrine devoted to a single
important god or goddess.
The shrines portray the divinities in sculptured images. Hindus treat these
images as living human beings. Every day, for example, priests wash and dress
the images and bring them food. Hindus do not consider this custom idol worship.
They believe the divinities are actually present in the images.
Hindu temples hold annual festivals commemorating events in the lives of the
divinities. Huge crowds gather for these festivals. They come to worship, to
pray for assistance, and to enjoy the pageantry of the event. Millions of Hindus
visit temples along the Ganges River, the most sacred river in India.
Worship in the home. Many observances of Hinduism take place in the home.
Most homes have a shrine devoted to a divinity chosen by the family. In most
homes, the husband or wife conducts the daily family worship. A number of
important ceremonies are performed at home, including the one in which boys
officially become members of the Hindu community. Other religious ceremonies
include marriage ceremonies and rituals that are connected with pregnancy and
childbirth.
Worship of saints. Hindus worship both living and dead men as saints.
Some saints may be yogis (men who practice yoga), and others may be gurus
(spiritual teachers). Hinduism has many local and regional saints, rather than
official saints for all its followers. A Hindu village, tribe, or religious
order may elevate its own heroes or protectors to sainthood. Many Hindu monks
and nuns have joined together in religious orders under the leadership of a
saint.
Contributor: Charles S. J. White, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus of Philosophy and
Religion, The American University.
Additional resources
Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge, 1996.
Klostermaier, Klaus K. A Survey of Hinduism. 2nd ed. State Univ. of N. Y. Pr.,
1994.
Powell, Barbara. Windows into the Infinite: A Guide to the Hindu Scriptures.
Asian Humanities, 1996.
Sharma, Arvind. Hinduism for Our Times. Oxford, 1996.
Sullivan, Bruce M. Historical Dictionary of Hinduism. Scarecrow, 1997.
Viswanathan, Ed. Am I a Hindu? The Hinduism Primer. Halo Bks., 1992.